Religion Among Early American Immigrants essays

Religion Among Early American Immigrants essays For the first American immigrants, religion wasnt just an attribute, it was a way of life. It defined what kind of lives they lead and how they were viewed by others in their new community. In some cases, religion determined where people could live. It became a regular financial expense similar to paying taxes. Often, ones rights as an American citizen hinged on which faith he proclaimed, as did their political views. In essence, the immigrant experience was dramatically affected by religious attitudes in the country at the time of their coming. In the early years of Virginian immigration, the vast majority of the settlers held Protestant beliefs, though the varieties differed. After becoming a royal colony, Virginia became an example for England of ideal Anglican conformity. Sermons were administered every Sunday, communion given three times a year, responsibility was adopted to shape the behavior of the children, and to influence the people to lead what they considered to be pure lives. Church was not just a pastime, it was an expected ritual. Any parishioners absent from church on Sundays or holidays were forced to pay a shilling in addition to the tithes they owed already. People such as Sir William Berkeley focused their wills on their spiritual wealth more than their material. In a world that was haunted by death, religion became urgently important to the Virginiansmore urgent then their worldly business. Prejudice against certain religions incited a major change in the lives of their followers. In 17th century Massachusetts, Puritans and their descendants had tight control over the area. A control they would lose in 1642 when Governor William Berkeley created new laws that demanded all nonconformists...to depart the colony with all conveniency. Many nonconformist ministers served Puritan communities, which suddenly found themselves scattered and banishe...

The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution

The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution The 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution deals with several aspects of U.S. citizenship and the rights of citizens. Ratified on July 9, 1868, during the post-Civil War era, the 14th, along with the 13th and 15th Amendments, are collectively known as the Reconstruction Amendments. Although the 14th Amendment was intended to protect the rights of the recently freed slaves, it has continued to play a major role in constitutional politics to this day.   In response to the Emancipation Proclamation and the 13th Amendment, many Southern states enacted laws known as Black Codes designed to continue to deny African Americans certain rights and privileges enjoyed by white citizens. Under the states Black Codes, recently freed slaves were not allowed to travel widely, own certain types of property, or sue in court. In addition, African Americans could be jailed for not being able to repay their debts, leading to racially-discriminating labor practices like the leasing of convicts to private businesses. The 14th Amendment and the Civil Rights Act of 1866 Of the three Reconstruction amendments, the 14th is the most complicated and the one that has had the more unforeseen effects. Its broad goal was to reinforce the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which ensured that all persons born in the United States were citizens and were to be given full and equal benefit of all laws. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 protected the â€Å"civil† rights of all citizens, such as the right to sue, make contracts, and buy and sell property. However, it failed to protect â€Å"political† rights, like the right to vote and hold office, or â€Å"social† rights guaranteeing equal access to schools and other public accommodations. Congress had intentionally omitted those protections in hopes of averting the bill’s veto by President Andrew Johnson (1808–1875). When the Civil Rights Act landed on President Johnsons desk, he fulfilled his promise to veto it. Congress, in turn, overrode the veto and the measure became law. Johnson, a Tennessee Democrat and staunch supporter of states’ rights, had clashed repeatedly with the Republican-controlled Congress. Fearing President Johnson and Southern politicians would attempt to undo the protections of the Civil Rights Act, Republican congressional leaders began work on what would become the 14th Amendment. Ratification and the States After clearing Congress in June of 1866, the 14th Amendment went to the states for ratification. As a condition for readmittance to the Union, the former Confederate states were required to approve the amendment. This became a point of contention between Congress and Southern leaders. The 14th Amendment.   U.S. National Archives Connecticut was the first state to ratify the 14th Amendment on June 30, 1866. During the next two years, 28 states would ratify the amendment, although not without incident. Legislatures in Ohio and New Jersey both rescinded their states pro-amendment votes. In the South, Louisiana and North and South Carolina refused initially to ratify the amendment. Nevertheless, the 14th Amendment was declared formally ratified on July 28, 1868. The 14th Amendment and the Civil Rights Cases of 1883 With its passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, Congress attempted to bolster the 14th Amendment. Also known as the â€Å"Enforcement Act,† the 1875 Act guaranteed all citizens, regardless of race or color, equal access to public accommodations and transportation, and made it illegal to exempt them from serving on juries. In 1883, however, the U.S. Supreme Court, in its Civil Rights Cases decisions, overturned the public accommodation sections of the Civil Rights Act of 1875 and declared that the 14th Amendment did not give Congress the power to dictate the affairs of private businesses.   As a result of the Civil Rights Cases, while African Americans had been declared legally â€Å"free† U.S. citizens by the 14th Amendment, they continue to face discrimination in society, economics, and politics into the 21st century. Amendment Sections The 14th Amendment contains five sections, of which the first contains the most impactful provisions.   Section One guarantees all rights and privileges of citizenship to any and all persons born or naturalized in the United States. It also guarantees all Americans their constitutional rights and prohibits the states from passing laws limiting those rights. Lastly, it ensures that no citizens right to life, liberty, or property will be denied without due process of law.    Section Two specifies that the process of apportionment used to fairly distribute seats in the U.S. House of Representatives among the states must be based on the whole population, including freed African American slaves. Prior to this, African Americans had been under-counted when apportioning representation. The section also guaranteed the right to vote to all male citizens age 21 years or older. Section Three forbids anyone who participates or has participated in â€Å"insurrection or rebellion† against the United States from holding any elected or appointed federal office. The section was intended to prevent former Confederate military officers and politicians from holding federal offices. Section Four addresses the federal debt by confirming that the neither the United States nor any state could be forced to pay for lost slaves or debts that had been incurred by the Confederacy as a result of their participation in the Civil War.   Section Five, also known as the Enforcement Clause, grants Congress the power to pass â€Å"appropriate legislation† as necessary to enforce all of the amendments other clauses and provisions. Key Clauses The four clauses of the first section of the 14th Amendment are the most important because they have repeatedly been cited in major Supreme Court cases concerning civil rights, presidential politics and the right to privacy. The Citizenship Clause The Citizenship Clause overrules the 1875 Supreme Court Dred Scott decision that freed African American slaves were not citizens, could not become citizens, and thus could never enjoy the benefits and protections of citizenship. The Citizenship Clause states that â€Å"All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside.† This clause played an important role in two Supreme Court cases: Elk v. Wilkins (1884) which addressed citizenship rights of Native Americans, and United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898) which affirmed the citizenship of U.S.-born children of legal immigrants. The Privileges and Immunities Clause The Privileges and Immunities Clause states No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States.  In the Slaughter-House Cases (1873), the Supreme Court recognized a difference between a persons rights as a U.S. citizen and their rights under state law. The ruling held that state laws could not impede a persons federal rights. In McDonald v. Chicago (2010), which overturned a Chicago ban on handguns, Justice Clarence Thomas cited this clause in his opinion supporting the ruling. The Due Process Clause The Due Process Clause says no state shall deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. Although this clause was intended to apply to professional contracts and transactions, over time it has become most closely cited in right-to-privacy cases. Notable Supreme Court cases that have turned on this issue include Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), which overturned a Connecticut ban on the sale of contraception; Roe v. Wade (1973), which overturned a Texas ban on abortion and lifted many restrictions on the practice nationwide; and Obergefell v. Hodges (2015), which held that same-sex marriages deserved federal recognition. The Equal Protection Clause The Equal Protection Clause prevents states from denying to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.  The clause has become most closely associated with civil rights cases, particularly for African Americans. In Plessy v. Ferguson (1898) the Supreme Court ruled that Southern states could enforce racial segregation as long as separate but equal facilities existed for blacks and whites. It wouldnt be until Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that the Supreme Court would revisit this opinion, ultimately ruling that separate facilities were, in fact, unconstitutional. This key ruling opened the door for a number of significant civil rights and affirmative action court cases. Bush v. Gore (2001) also touched on the equal protection clause when a majority of justices ruled that the partial recount of presidential votes in Florida was unconstitutional because it was not being conducted the same way in all contested locations. The decision essentially decided the 2000 presidential election in George W. Bushs favor. The Lasting Legacy of the 14th Amendment Over time, numerous lawsuits have arisen that have referenced the 14th Amendment. The fact that the amendment uses the word state in the Privileges and Immunities Clause- along with interpretation of the Due Process Clause- has meant state power and federal power are both subject to the Bill of Rights. Further, the courts have interpreted the word person to include corporations. As a result, corporations are also protected by due process along with being granted equal protection. While there were other clauses in the amendment, none were as significant as these. Updated by Robert Longley   Sources and Further Reading Baer, Judith A. Equality Under the Constitution: Reclaiming the Fourteenth Amendment. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1983.  Lash, Kurt T. The Fourteenth Amendment and the Privileges and Immunities of American Citizenship. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014.Nelson, William E. The Fourteenth Amendment: From Political Principle to Judicial Doctrine. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1988

A critical evaluation of the role of Budgetting Essay

A critical evaluation of the role of Budgetting - Essay Example results in nothing more than dysfunctional behaviour has initially been proposed by Hope and Fraser (2003) as part of the Beyond Budgeting Round Table (BBRT). This report is a review of relevance of budgeting in contemporary business contexts and an attempt to suggest which one among ‘better budgeting’ or ‘beyond budgeting’ will be effective to the CFO of Halfords Group plc. This report is prepared to submit to the CFO as he asked me to review literatures and prepare a report based on ‘budgeting- lost relevance’ after he participated in a conference that made him concerned about the matter. In finance and accounting, budgeting is a formal plan expressed in monetary terms and is prepared in a current financial year to provide managers and other stakeholders with an estimate of the anticipated costs and revenues for the next financial year (Chandra, Menon and Mishra, 2007, p. 264). Traditionally, budgets served a number of useful purposes such as 1) planning annual business operations, 2) coordinating various activities in the organisation, 3) communicating these plans to various responsibility managers or departments, 4) motivating managers to achieve desired organisational goal, 5) controlling all activities in the firm and 6) evaluating managers’ performance (Drury, 2006, p. 426). Because of that budgeting looks both forward and backward, it identifies resources that the company is likely to generate and the need in its near future to serve as a measure of current and past performance of department and individual managers (Fabozzi and Drake, 2009, p. 334). Why budgeting has been traditionally considered as an effective strategic tool for management accounting was that it was nothing but a plan relating to future and it helped management take various critical decisions pertaining to strategic planning, budgetary planning and operational planning (Walker, 2006, p. 305). Budgeting has also played a very significant role in strategic and operational

Art joins poetry on the beach by Charles Donelan Essay

Art joins poetry on the beach by Charles Donelan - Essay Example They went against the grain of local opposition to foreigners photographing sacred building as well as the omnipresent dust, severe temperatures, and inclement light. Most of these early photographers made negatives on glass plates, which were delicate and cumbersome; however, they produced sharp images. Francis Frith (England 1822-1898) documented that the severe heat could boil photosensitive chemicals on his glass plates, and regularly the best accessible darkrooms were tombs and caves. Other photographers made collotypes’, the paper negatives from which positive photos are printed. There were more convenient than glass plates and the paper’s texture produced a positive photo with softer tones. Photographs of the holy locations, archeological places, and ruins authenticated the new field of archeology, liberated historians, and captivated those wanting romantic perceptions of alien lands. Photos offered foster experiences for Americans and Europeans put off by the vo yage, even after the Suez Canal opened in 1896. The exhibition installation offers classic images presenting a variety of themes and topics including city views, pictorial of holy places, ancient architectural allure, and assessment of essential artifacts. All images in this installation are derived from Leland Stanford Junior museum. Frith exceedingly explored the Near East during three long voyages, all taken between 1856 and 1860. In 1857 he photographed Cairo’s mosques, a daunting task because non-Muslims were not permitted inside them and he had to find vantage points away from the town’s throngs. Frith collected his photographs of architecture causally so that light and shadow assisted a feeling of spatial profundity and scope. Frith, a Quaker and flourished entrepreneur with a passion for expedition, became the most prominent English photographer of the Near East. He accomplished this aiming chic audience with his elegant photographs, stereo-view cards, and phot o-graphics publications featuring archeological and biblical locations. During his expeditions, Frith noted that tourists were the central audience of his photography collections. The most of the Mosque Emeer Akhor was of particular interest to me. Architecture is the art of construction. The art consolidates shapes, building techniques, and constructions of materials to create a building that is alluring to look at. This art as well works the means it requires to, and fits with what is around it. In these photograph we view a mosque with all its beautiful dome and striking patterns. It is shielded by a stonewall. The design of this mosque is an irrefutable Ottoman imperial style, likely as a challenge to the Sultan authority. The architecture of the mosque from the photograph yet has remained mostly faithful to its style accredited to the earlier dynasty. The stonewalls somehow gives one the feeling that the mosque was fortified by the then dynasty, to shield it from the crusaders. PART II Hank Pitcher’s paintings are founded in a certain feeling of place. He was born in Pasadena, California on July 20, 1949. Yet his parents relocated to Isla Vista, next to Santa Barbara. He was two years-old. Then, Isla Vista was a mere colony on the beach. On the other hand, Goleta was a farm town where kids rode their horses gown the street to buy chocolate at the store. At San Marcos High School, he was a coffee star and was hired by big-shot universities. Instead of soccer, he selected to attend the College of Creative Studies, an option program within the University of California at Santa Barbara, where he currently teaches painting. He divides his time between painting and surfing, engaging in each with devotion and

How do companies in the retailing industry use twitter to interact Dissertation

How do companies in the retailing industry use twitter to interact with their customers Is Twitter a good tool to interact with - Dissertation Example The notion of â€Å"going global† that was once considered as a prestigious strategic option and it was reserved for mighty organizations in the past (Hennig-Thurau 2010). But in the current scenario of the global economy all of the companies regardless of age and size have the option to serve globally. The common examples that started small and with the passage of time went global include the names of Microsoft and Wal-Mart. The former one has its roots in a small room and the other one started out as a tiny shop in the village. The only thing that has helped the process of evolution in the business world is known as entrepreneurial skills and instincts. The abovementioned attributes has the power to help the process of economic growth and the internet grew significantly because it subliminally fulfilled the purpose of the business that is to experience growth (Raacke & Bonds-Raacke 2008). The cliche is true that states that the company which is not growing then perhaps it is dying out. The global reach is going to be the decisive factor of success in the futuristic market conditions of the international economy in the near future. The internet’s role is increasing in driving the lives of humans (Baird & Parasnis 2011). The internet technology is a huge network of networks that has infiltrated every aspect of human life and the essence of social life is also being lost because it is a complete rarity to communicate face to face. Everyone is using Twitter as the source of socializing (Kaplan & Haenlein 2011). According to modern psychology, the practice of e-socializing is bad for community because in the practical sense, the practice is playing a very powerful role in terms of adding loneliness in the lives. Introduction The information technology has become an integral part of common man’s life throughout the world and therefore, the companies have to adapt their practices in order to accommodate changing and fluxing preferences of the cu stomers (Edvardsson & Gruber 2011). The internet has grown as a notable and major means of doing business in the modern era of the 21st century. The e-commerce is effectively allowing the smaller firms to compete the larger ones in the global marketplace and because of this reason, the playing field has been leveled and that is allowing the organizational and managerial focus to shift from growing in size to efficiency (Kima & Ko 2012). The core business philosophy that is currently being followed in all walks of life is to drive down the costs so that product and service quality can be improved while, experiencing significant growth in terms of profitability (Thackeray, Neiger, Hanson, & McKenzie 2008). The modern times have also witnessed a massive level of knowledge explosion that has indeed made all of the world’s knowledge available on the web and therefore, every business has the ability to avail the information against minimal costs and this information is then, implem ented in the several fields (Boulton & Panizzon 1998). The Chinese nation has developed as an economic superpower because it managed to gather the knowledge that was created and implemented in the west. After gathering the information, Chinese government provided an infrastructure that supported and helped the local scholars in the process of contextualizing the knowledge and that very

Human Resource Management At Mars Confectionery

Human Resource Management At Mars Confectionery This assignment will investigate how human resource management (HRM) contributes to the achievement of organisational goals and objectives, particularly looking at HRM activities such as staffing, performance management and change management. A discussion of several HR planning and development models will be presented including the model of traditional manpower planning, the integrated human resources planning framework and the systematic model of learning and training. Finally, an analysis of how appraisal systems are used to monitor performance in organisations will be undertaken, making suggestions on the shortfalls of this method and potential improvements. Discussions in this assignment will be retaliated to current information about Mars incorporated Ltd (Mars). Mars is a privately-owned, global fast moving consumer goods organisation specialising in confectionery, drinks and pet care. HRM Information of Mars was largely obtained from in interview conducted with a line manager in HRM at Mars. Information in this assignment obtained from the interview has not been referenced. Other information presented about Mars which has been obtained from other sources such as their website and books has been reverenced at the end of the assignment. Task 1: Human Resources Management Human resource management activities at Mars Confectionery This section will firstly discuss the HRM activity of staffing which is conducted at Mars. Staffing is the process of acquiring, deploying, and retaining a workforce of sufficient quantity and quality to create positive impacts on the organisations effectiveness (Burkholder, Edwards and Sartain, 2004). Secondly, the HRM activity of performance management will be discussed. Performance management can be understood as the process of creating a work environment or setting in which people are enabled to perform to the best of their abilities (Bacal, 1999). Change management is the third main HRM activity conducted at Mars. Change management is a structured approach to transitioning individuals, teams, and organizations from a current state to a desired future state (Cameron and Green, 2004). Staffing Human resource management at Mars is primarily concerned with ensuring that the organisation is appropriately staffed with the right people, with the right skills, at the right time. At the employee level, staffing has the objective of finding an employee who fits into the culture and value system and who is motivated and empowered to work for the organisation. Secondly, at the organisational level, staffing aims to maximise critical knowledge, skills and abilities within the organisation which contribute to its overall effectiveness and competitive advantage (Judge and Ferris, 1992). At Mars, these objectives are achieved through several means. Initially, a clear forecast on future staffing needs are established. These are determined at Mars by the organisational strategy and the predicted turnover rates based upon averages from previous years. Contracts for different groups of employees are then devised and employment packages are designed to attract the required employee skill levels. Relevant line managers who are familiar with the skills required for the certain role will be required to draw up role specifications addressing the certain skills and abilities needed. In addition to this, employees seen as no longer fitting into the organisations culture and value system are dismissed by HRM. Before dismissals occur at Mars, HRM places underperforming employees on a Performance Improvement Plan (PIP) to help monitor their performance and provide them with mentoring. Performance Management A second activity of human resource management at Mars is to ensure that employees are highly motivated and perform well within their roles. The main objective of enhancing motivation and performance is to maximise the effort employees put into their roles and to focus attention on performance targets. In addition to this, enhancing performance within the workforce also helps to raise levels of commitment and engage employees in developing new ideas (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p7). Enhanced employee performance is achieved by human resource management at Mars through employee training and development programmes which aim to increase employees capacity to adopt new technologies and methods. Training and development programmes allow employees to increase their career development through the organisation and reduce employee turnover through increased motivation and commitment. In addition to this, reward systems, such as promotion and bonuses, are also used at Mars to enhance performance through providing incentives and positive reinforcement. Change Management Another activity of human resource management at Mars is to make sure that organisational change interventions are successful and run as smoothly as possible. For example, Mars has recently implemented change programmes such as TQM and six sigma. These have required substantial changes to the organisations culture and work systems. It was HRs role to help with the planning of this implementation and to make sure that the necessary training and support was available to the workforce when implementation began. These objectives are achieved by HR at Mars through recruiting and developing people with the necessary leadership skills to help drive the change process. In addition to this, agents are also recruited by HR to encourage the acceptance of change by the workforce and construct reward systems to reinforce new behaviours. HR also takes a leading role in assessing the likely impact of change on employees as well as supporting them during the change programme. This is achieved through preparing information to help them cope with the process and developing a timeline for change. HR at Mars also has a critical role in assessing whether the change programme had been successful and monitoring whether it has produced the required return on investment. They achieve this objective through conducting employee survey to obtain feedback on employee perceptions regarding the change and how it was conducted. In summary, the three HRM activities of staffing, performance management and change management at Mars are essential for the smooth running and development of the Mars organisation. Theoretical models of human resource management This section will describe two influential models within HRM. Firstly, the Harvard model by Beer et al. (1984) is an analytical model which views employees as significant stakeholders within the organisation with their own needs and concerns (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p34). Secondly, the Michigan or Matching model will be addressed. The Michigan model states that the control of HRM is the responsibility of senior management and sees employees as resources in the same way as any other business resource (Price, 2007 p39). The Harvard Model The model acknowledges that management has the greatest power within an organisation but suggests that for effective HRM, the needs of employees must be always be considered. For example, the model shows HRM policies to be influenced by two significant considerations: situational factors (workforce characteristics, management philosophy and labour market) and stakeholder interests (employee groups, community and unions). This shows that effective HRM should not be a reactive function but continually help monitor and adjust the organisations policies to meet the forever changing needs of the workforce and environment in which it operates. In addition to this, the model also acknowledges the need for HRM mechanisms to reconcile the inevitable tension between employee expectations and management objectives. For example, the implementation of rewards and structured work systems allow for the organisation to nurture the values of commitment, competence, congruence and cost effectiveness within the workforce. To achieve long term HRM objectives of individual wellbeing, organisational effectiveness and social well being, the Harvard model suggests that it is essential that all must be responsible for human resource and consider issues such as delegation, leadership, participation and team building. The Michigan Model Unlike the Harvard model, the Michigan model (Fombrun et al, 1984 p41) takes a top-down approach suggesting that the control of HRM is the responsibility of senior management and sees employees as resources in the same way as any other business resource (Price, 2007 p39). For example, the model highlights areas such as selection, appraisal, rewards and development but ignores the influence of employee needs and situational factors upon the organisation. Instead, the model views that employees have to be managed like equipment; obtained as cheaply as possible, used sparingly, and developed and exploited as much as possible (Price, 2007 p39). The Michigan model also shows that employees must be selected and trained to fit the strategic requirements of the organisation and show behavioural consistency with their ways of thinking and operating (Price, 2007 p41). For example, if there is an organisational strategy of innovation, employees will be expected to show long term creativity and skill. This is displayed by the great emphasis upon selection, performance and appraisal within the model. In contrast to the Harvard Model, the Michigan model shows HRM to be a reactive organisational function which under-emphasises the importance of social and external factors. For example, the model places emphasis on the importance of selection, performance, appraisal, rewards and training, but make no reference to employee needs and interests, and environmental factors such as employee groups, community and unions. This means that the model would be unable to factor in current concerns such as employee work-life balance. In summary, the Harvard and Michigan models both show two contrasting perspectives of effective HRM. Although they are both highly applicable models in their own right, it could be suggested that Harvard model is the most applicable to the HRM of today, taking into consideration current concerns of work-life balanced. Task 2: HR Planning and Development Three HR planning and development models This section will describe the two HR planning models of Traditional Manpower Planning and Integrated Human Resources Planning Model; and the HR development model of Systematic Learning and Training. Human Resource Planning Human resource planning is the process of managing when people enter, move through and leave business organisations in accordance with the overall objectives of the business. HRM needs to assess the future demand for staff and the availability of suitable staff to meet their requirements (RDI, 2008 p2.3 ff). 1. Model of Traditional Manpower Planning The model of traditional manpower planning is a more traditional human resources planning model emphasising the importance of obtaining the right number of the right employees in the right place at the right time (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p51). The model suggests that demand for employees is strongly influenced by organisational strategies and objectives, the environment, and the way in which staff are managed and utilised (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p51). Environment Organisational objectives and strategies Analysis of internal manpower supply Analyses of external manpower supply Project manpower demand Project manpower supply Manpower plans Reconcile Figure 3: Model of traditional manpower planning. Adapted from (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p51). When applying the model of traditional manpower planning to Mars, it could be recommended that Mars begins by analysing the changing environment in which it operates. For example, the recent takeover of Cadburys by Kraft has meant that Mars strategy has become more defensive making sure that maintains its competitive advantage within the industry. Mars must begin to project manpower demand and supply to make sure it is able to recruit the right people with the right skills to facilitate its new defensive strategy. For example, one option for Mars is to target and recruit former Cadburys and Kraft managers to obtain important competitor information. Before it can fulfil this recruitment strategy, the model suggests that Mars must assess the availability of such knowledge within job the market. 2. Integrated Human Resources Planning Model Unlike the model of traditional manpower planning, the integrated human resources planning model brings together all aspects of HR planning and considers the effects of culture, systems and environment on employee demand (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p52). The model identifies where we want to be based upon the organisations strategy; where we are now; and what we need to do to get there. Environmental Influences Where are we now? Translate vision Where do we want to be? Design and use plans to achieve transition Strategic Vision Figure 4: Integrated Human Resources Planning Framework. Adapted from (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p52). When applying the integrated human resources planning model to Mars, Mars would firstly need to address where we are now; analysing the environment to determine what customers want and what competitors are doing. For example, from analysing the current confectionery market, Mars will determine that there is increasing competition from Cadburys due to its recent takeover by Kraft. Also, they would be able to determine from the analysis of customer requirements that there is a need for better customer service and lower prices. Based upon the model, Mars would then have to address where we want to be; translating environmental influences into strategic objectives which can be used to determine human resource goals. For example, for Mars to compete against Cadburys they must establish human resources goals to make sure that their hire talented managers who can bring new skills and capabilities to Mars. In addition to this, Mars should address what do we need to get there; addressing the resources and time-scales needed to fulfil the strategic objectives. Mars would need to decide on what type of skills and personalities they need to recruit, how many new employees they need to recruit and how they are going to advertise the positions. Human Resources Development HR development is a strategic approach used to invest in human capital. It draws on other HR processes including resourcing and performance assessment to identify actual and potential talent (RDI, 2008 p2.22). The systematic model of learning and training was developed to help organisations move away non-evaluated training, replacing it with a more orderly sequence of development. 1. Systematic Model of Learning and Training Environment Business Strategy People Development Strategy Identify development need Design development activity Carry out development Evaluate development Figure 5. A systematic model of learning and training. Adapted from demand (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005 p391). According to the model, the changing environment and business strategy help to shape the type of skills and abilities required in the workforce. These developmental needs can be identified by both the individual and organisation through a problem centred approach (where a new strategy may highlight a shortage of a particular skill within the workforce) and developing an individuals competency profile to meet the job requirements. For example, the changing business strategy at Mars to improve internal computer systems has revealed a potential gap IT technical skills. When a gap in skill has been identified, the model suggests that the development required needs to be planned and developed. The planning and design of the learning will be influenced by HR development strategy, which may determine who is involved in the training and type of methods used. For example, HR at Mars has planned and developed a learning programme with trained IT trainers to visit the business and develop employee IT skills whilst at work, but not divert too much of their time away from other more important tasks. In summary, when an organisation such as Mars adapts to changing environments through with new strategic objectives, it often requires new skills to be brought in or developed within the company. These changes in workforce requirements can either be planned and remedied through recruitment, or development can take place to enhance and build upon existing employee skills and abilities. Planning and development models that are most effective in helping an organisation to meet is objectives are these which take a more holistic approach and are able to adapt to changing organisational requirements. Effectiveness in achieving organisational objectives An organisational objective at Mars is to gain and maintain competitive advantage through a highly skilled and motivated workforce. Although the model of traditional manpower planning is effective in allowing Mars to plan for and fulfil future workforce needs, the model does not take into consideration the need for Mars to plan for issues such as employee behaviour, personality and fit within the organisations culture. In contrast to this, the integrated human resources planning model is very effective in allowing Mars to achieve this strategy. Unlike the model of traditional manpower planning, the integrated human resource planning model is able to integrate the need of the organisation to obtain highly skilled employees with the need for them to have the right fit within the organisational culture. In addition to this, the model is able to adapt to the continuous changes to Mars strategy which is central to the manpower planning framework. The systematic model of learning and training is also effective in allowing Mars to achieve its organisational objective to gain and maintain competitive advantage through a highly skilled and motivated workforce. The model provides an integrated framework to allow Mars to plan learning programmes and to develop workforce skill around organisational strategies and environmental changes. Despite this, the model has the limitation of being too systematic and potentially unable to relate to the fast pace of continuous change evident at Mars (Sloman, 2001). In summary, it could be recommended that Mars adopts a combination of the integrated human resources planning model and the systematic model of learning and training. Through using a combination of these two models, Mars would be able to adequately plan for and hire appropriate staff and then develop skills to meet their strategy needs. Task 3: Performance How HR performance is monitored at Mars This section will discuss how appraisal systems are used at Mars to monitor performance. Performance appraisal systems are a formalised process to review performance at work over a given period of time (Grote, 1996). Mars uses a method whereby role objectives or targets are established by the employee and line manager throughout the year and are later reviewed at the next appraisal. Assessments are made to measure the extent to which these objectives have been met throughout the year. Mars believes that performance expectations need to be understood and involve contribution from employees to allow for a greater degree of input and commitment. The objectives set by employees at Mars are closely monitored by the line manager to make sure that they appropriately stretch the individual and offer personal development as well as meeting the needs of the role. The objectives set by the employee and line manager are prioritised according to importance and how urgently they need to be addressed. Prioritising objectives in this manor allows the employees to manage their time more effectively through addressing the most important objectives first. In addition to this, Mars also uses the SMART system for describing individual targets and objectives. Before a target can be set by the employee, the line manager must make sure that the target is Specific, Measurable, Appropriate, Relevant and Timed. Ensuring that the target meets these criteria means that the objectives are meaningful and reliably assessed. Regular brief meetings are set between employee and manager, as objectives are met, to discuss progress and decide on whether new objectives need to be added or whether some objectives need to be removed. Problem areas are highlighted and discussed, and ongoing coaching is given by managers to help guide employees by giving constructive feedback. 360 degree appraisals are used at Mars to allow for a more fair and stringent method of performance assessment. Performance is monitored and assessed by a variety of people in contact with the individual, including, line managers, peers, clients, suppliers. Obtaining appraisals from a variety of sources allows for a fuller picture to be built up of the performance and capabilities of the individual in many different areas of their work. The outcome of appraisal systems at Mars is directly linked to the salary and promotions. For example, if employees are rated during their appraisal as exceeds expectations, they will receive a 4% pay raise the following year. Employees rated as below expectations can be placed on a Performance Improvement Programme which means that their performance is closely monitored throughout the year and they are provided with mentoring to improve problem areas. Although it appears that Mars has a very stringent approach to performance appraisals, it is important to understand how Mars uses this information after it has been obtained and whether line managers have received the correct training to make sure they are collecting information fairly. Effectiveness of the appraisal system at Mars and potential improvements. The appraisal system at Mars is very effective in obtaining reliable and useful information regarding employee performance. One way in which Mars maintains the effectiveness of its appraisal system is through making sure that line managers are properly trained to conduct appraisals. Managers are required to attend a yearly training session supported by human resources where they informed about the most effective ways of monitoring process and supporting their employees through development. Training is also provided on how to record appraisal information efficiently and how to conduct 360 degree appraisals. Despite the stringent approach to performance appraisals at Mars, appraisal have been criticised for being too subjective (Torrington, Hall and Taylor, 2005). Sometimes appraisals can be unreliable through prejudice when the appraisers judgement is distorted because they dont like the appraisee. Also appraisals can be unreliable when the appraisers have insufficient knowledge of the appraisee. This is particularly the case when appraisers carry out appraisals due to their position in the company hierarchy rather than their knowledge of the appraisee. In addition to this, appraisals can cause a lot of anxiety and stress for all involved. Research about appraising performance has found that the appraisal itself was often accompanied by long periods of sickness absence due to stress (Grint, 1993). This is a potential problem at Mars because appraisals are directly linked to employee pay and promotion which may create a lot of stress for individual employee. Effectiveness of appraisals at Mars can be improved further making sure that all involved in the 360 degree appraisal understand what the system is for and the importance of accuracy. Research suggests that questions will be answered more accurately when participants understand the true purpose of the appraisal (Grint, 1993). In addition to this, plenty of feedback should be given to those involved in appraisals as research also suggests that feedback allows for the system to be better accepted and reduces anxiety (Grint, 1993). In summary, Mars has a very stringent approach to performance appraisals. They believe that it is important to obtain a full picture of the individual, from many different sources and allow the individual to play an active role in shaping their own objective and target setting. Despite this, improvements can be made to make sure that stress is kept to a minimum and proper training is provided to make sure that appraisals are not biased in anyway. Assignment Conclusion To be successful in a fast changing global economy, organisations must invest more time and resources into the acquisition and development of high calibre employees. HRM has a vital role to play in this strategy through performance management, recruitment and change management. In the example of Mars, HRM is continually facilitating an environment where employees can improve their skills and competencies through professional development programmes and performance appraisal. Although Mars has well developed HRM policies, to remain competitive, they must continue to invest time and resources into HRM to continue to obtain the right employees, with the right skills at the right time.

History of Psychology :: Historical Social Sciences Psychology Essays

History of Psychology In this essay I am looking at where Psychology as a discipline has come from and what affects these early ideas have had on psychology today, Psychology as a whole has stemmed from a number of different areas of study from Physics to Biology, But the first Psychological foundations are rooted in philosophy, which to this day propels psychological inquiry in areas such as language acquisition, consciousness, and even vision among many others. While the great philosophical distinction between mind and body in western thought can be traced to the Greeks, it is to the influential work of Renà © Descartes, French mathematician, philosopher, and physiologist, that we owe the first systematic account of the mind/body relationship. As the 19th century progressed, the problem of the relationship of mind to brain became ever more pressing. The word Psychology comes from two Greek words: Psyche and Logos. The term ?psychology? used early on described the study of the spirit. It was in the 18th century when psychology gained its literal meaning: The study of behaviour. In studies today psychology is defined as the scientific and systematic study of human and animal behaviour. The term psychology has a long history but the psychology as an independent discipline is fairly new. Psychology started, and had a long history, as a topic within the fields of philosophy and physiology. It then became an independent field of its own through the work of the German Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of experimental psychology and structuralism. Wundt stressed the use of scientific methods in psychology, particularly through the use of introspection. In 1875, a room was set-aside for Wundt for demonstrations in what we now call sensation and perception. This is the same year that William James set up a similar lab at Harvard. Wilhelm Wundt and William James are usually thought of as the fathers of psychology, as well as the founders of psychology?s first two great ?schools? Structuralism and Functionalism. Psychologist Edward B Titchner said; ?to study the brain and the unconscious we should break it into its structural elements, after that we can construct it into a whole and understand what it does.? (psicafe.com) Functionalism, an early school of psychology, focuses on the acts and functions of the mind rather than its internal contents. Its most prominent American advocate is William James. William James is the author of ?The Principles of Psychology? a book that is considered to be one of the most important texts in modern psychology.